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Zinc Air Fuel Cell
www.ZincAirFuelCell.com

The Ultimate Online Resource about Zinc Air Fuel Cells

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Zinc Air Fuel Cell
www.ZincAirFuelCell.com

What is a Zinc Air Fuel Cell?

The Zinc Air Fuel Cell, or "ZAFC"  incorporates a gas diffusion electrode (GDE) and a zinc anode which is separated by an electrolyte and some other form of mechanical separators. 

The gas diffusion electrode is a permeable membrane that allows oxygen from the atmospheric to enter the fuel cell.  The oxygen is then converted into hydroxyl ions and water and then the hydroxyl ions will travel through an electrolyte and reaches the zinc anode. 

At the zinc anode, the O2 reacts with the zinc, and forms zinc oxide. 

This process creates an electrical potential and when the Zinc Air Fuel Cell is connected, the combined electrical potential of these cells can be used as a source of electric power. Zinc Air Fuel Cells are very similar to PEM fuel cells, with the exception that the refueling of teh ZAFCs are very different.  

Zinc Air Fuel Cells have similar characteristics with batteries. ZAFCs contain a zinc "fuel tank" and a zinc refrigerator that automatically and silently regenerates the fuel. Within this "closed-loop," electricity is created as zinc and oxygen are mixed in the presence of an electrolyte - much like a PEMFC - which creates zinc oxide. Once the zinc oxide fuel is used up, the system is connected to the grid and the process is reversed, leaving once again pure zinc fuel pellets. The key is that this reversing process takes only about 5 minutes to complete, so the battery recharging time hang up is not an issue. 

The primary advantage that zinc air fuel cells have over other battery type technologies is that ZAFCs have high specific energy.  This is a very important advantage which also determines the running time or duration of a battery relative to its weight. 

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Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
www.MoltenCarbonateFuelCell.com

What are Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells?

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at producing a fuel cell which would operate directly on coal. While direct operation on coal seems less likely today, operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas is viable.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Design and Operation

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells use a molten carbonate salt mixture as its electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate. At the operating temperature of about 1200°F (650°C), the salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor. The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and chemically inert ceramic (LiA102) matrix.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell reactions that occur are:

The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte which produces water and carbon dioxide (CO2) while releasing electrons to the anode. The cathode process combines oxygen and CO2 from the oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte. The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it with the cathode feed stream.

As the operating temperature increases, the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency. On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and thus the current which can be obtained at a given voltage. The net effect for the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell is that the real operating voltage is higher than the operating voltage for the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell at the same current density.

The higher operating voltage of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell means that more power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell than from a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell of the same electrode area. As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests that a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell should be smaller and less expensive than a "comparable" Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell also produces excess heat at a temperature which is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed to a turbine to generate additional electricity. In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of 60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell systems.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F (650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of the electrolyte. To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.

As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell offers the possibility that it could operate directly on gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen within the fuel cell itself.

The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO2 from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the incoming air stream. Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent fuel stream must be burned. Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel stream.

At cell operating temperatures of 1200°F (650°C) noble metal catalysts are not required. The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder, alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep at operating temperatures. The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with lithium. Significant technology has been developed to provide electrode structures which position the electrolyte with respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation. The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell stack life. A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with corrosion of the cathode.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operating temperature is about 1200°F (650°C). At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good conductor. The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature. A change in cell temperature from 1200°F (650°C) to 1110°F (600°C) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%. The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO₂) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells offer significant cost reductions over Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs). Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning" —they can even use carbon oxides as fuel—making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.

The primary disadvantage of current Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

What are Hydrogen Fuel Cells?

Hydrogen's potential use in fuel and energy applications includes powering vehicles, running turbines or fuel cells to produce electricity, and generating heat and electricity for buildings. The current focus is on hydrogen's use in fuel cells.

Hydrogen bound in organic matter and in water makes up 70% of the earth's surface. Breaking up these bonds in water allows us produce hydrogen and then to use it as a fuel. There are numerous processes that can be used to break these bonds. Described below are a few methods for producing hydrogen that are currently used, or are under research and development. 

Most of the hydrogen now produced in the United States is on an industrial scale by the process of steam reforming, or as a byproduct of petroleum refining and chemicals production. Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in methane and methanol, and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic surfaces. The first step of the reaction decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Then a "shift reaction" changes the carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at temperatures of 392° F (200 ° C) or greater. 

Another way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis. Electrolysis separates the elements of water—H and oxygen (O)—by charging water with an electrical current. Adding an electrolyte such as salt improves the conductivity of the water and increases the efficiency of the process. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the hydrogen and oxygen and splits apart the atomic components, creating charged particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode, which is positively charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and the anode attracts oxygen. A voltage of 1.24 Volts is necessary to separate hydrogen from oxygen in pure water at 77° Fahrenheit (F) and 14.7 pounds per square inch pressure [25° Celsius (C) and 1.03 kilograms (kg) per centimeter squared.] This voltage requirement increases or decreases with changes in temperature and pressure. 

The smallest amount of electricity necessary to electrolyze one mole of water is 65.3 Watt-hours (at 77° F; 25 degrees C). Producing one cubit foot of hydrogen requires 0.14 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity (or 4.8 kWh per cubic meter). 

Renewable energy sources can produce electricity for electrolysis. For example, Humboldt State University's Schatz Energy Research Center designed and built a stand-alone solar hydrogen system. The system uses a 9.2 kilowatt (KW) photovoltaic (PV) array to provide power to compressors that aerate fish tanks. The power not used to run the compressors runs a 7.2 kilowatt bipolar alkaline electrolyzer. The electrolyzer can produce 53 standard cubic feet of hydrogen per hour (25 liters per minute). The unit has been operating without supervision since 1993. When there is not enough power from the PV array, the hydrogen provides fuel for a 1.5 kilowatt proton exchange membrane fuel cell to provide power for the compressors. 

Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At 2,500 degrees Celsius water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This heat could be provided by a concentrating solar energy device. The problem here is to prevent the hydrogen and oxygen from recombining at the high temperatures used in the process. 

Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals such as bromine or iodine, assisted by heat. This causes the water molecule to split. It takes several steps—usually three—to accomplish this entire process. 

Photoelectrochemical processes use two types of electrochemical systems to produce hydrogen. One uses soluble metal complexes as a catalyst, while the other uses semiconductor surfaces. When the soluble metal complex dissolves, the complex absorbs solar energy and produces an electrical charge that drives the water splitting reaction. This process mimics photosynthesis. 

The other method uses semiconducting electrodes in a photochemical cell to convert optical energy into chemical energy. The semiconductor surface serves two functions, to absorb solar energy and to act as an electrode. Light-induced corrosion limits the useful life of the semiconductor. 

Researchers at the University of Tennessee and U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory are researching ways to use photosynthesis to produce hydrogen from sunlight. The researchers extracted two photosynthetic complexes from spinach plants; called Photosystem I and Photosystem II. The two work together to produce carbohydrates for the plant. By attaching platinum atoms to the Photosystem I complexes, the researchers were able to produce hydrogen from visible light. Unfortunately, the process required the use of an added chemical that makes the overall process impractical, but the achievement shows potential. The researchers are working to combine the platinum-Photosystem I complexes with the Photosystem II complexes, forming a molecular system that can convert light and water directly into hydrogen, without help from an added chemical. 

Biological and photobiological processes can use algae and bacteria to produce hydrogen. Under specific conditions, the pigments in certain types of algae absorb solar energy. The enzyme in the cell acts as a catalyst to split the water molecules. Some bacteria are also capable of producing hydrogen, but unlike algae they require a substrate to grow on. The organisms not only produce hydrogen, but can clean up pollution as well. 

Research funded by DOE has led to the discovery of a mechanism to produce significant quantities of hydrogen from algae. Scientists have known for decades that algae produce trace amounts of hydrogen, but had not found a feasible method to increase the production of hydrogen. Scientists from the University of California (UC), Berkeley, and the U.S. DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory found the key. After allowing the algae culture to grow under normal conditions, the research team deprived it of both sulfur and oxygen, causing it to switch to an alternate metabolism that generates hydrogen. After several days of generating hydrogen, the algae culture was returned to normal conditions for a few days, allowing it to store up more energy. The process could be repeated many times. Producing hydrogen from algae could eventually provide a cost-effective and practical means to convert sunlight into hydrogen. 

Another source of hydrogen produced through natural processes is methane and ethanol. Methane (CH4) is a component of "biogas" that is produced by anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria occur widely throughout the environment. They break down or "digest" organic material in the absence of oxygen and produce biogas as a waste product. Sources of biogas include landfills, and livestock waste and municipal sewage treatment facilities. Methane is also the principal component of "natural gas" (a major heating and power plant fuel) produced by anaerobic bacteria eons ago. Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass. Most fuel ethanol produced in the United States is made from corn. 

Chemical engineers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have developed a process to produce hydrogen from glucose, a sugar produced by many plants. The process shows particular promise because it occurs at relatively low temperatures, and can produce fuel-cell-grade hydrogen in a single step. Glucose is manufactured in vast quantities from corn starch, but can also be derived from sugar beets or low-cost waste streams like paper mill sludge, cheese whey, corn stover or wood waste. 

The United States, Japan, Canada, and France have investigated thermal water splitting, a radically different approach to creating hydrogen. This process uses heat of up to 5,430°F (3,000°C) to split water molecules. 

Potential Uses for Hydrogen

When properly stored, hydrogen as a fuel burns in either a gaseous or liquid state. Motor vehicles and furnaces can be converted to use hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen has actually been used in the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors in the United States for many years. Many people in the late 19th century burned a fuel called "town gas," which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Several countries, including Brazil and Germany, still distribute this fuel. Hydrogen was used in early "hot-air" balloons, and later in airships (dirigibles) during the early 1900's. Gaseous hydrogen was used in 1820 as fuel for one of the earliest internal combustion engines. The U.S. Air Force had a secret, multi-million dollar program during the 1950's, code-named "Suntan," to develop hydrogen as a fuel for airplanes. Currently, industries use large quantities of hydrogen for refining petroleum, and for producing ammonia and methanol. The Space Shuttle uses hydrogen as fuel for its rockets. Automobile manufacturers have developed hydrogen-powered cars. 

Burning hydrogen creates less air pollution than gasoline or diesel. Hydrogen also has a higher flame speed, wider flammability limits, higher detonation temperature, burns hotter, and takes less energy to ignite than gasoline. This means that hydrogen burns faster, but carries the danger of pre-ignition and flashback. While hydrogen has its advantages as a vehicle fuel it still has a long way to go before it can be used as a substitute for gasoline. This is mainly due to the investment required to develop a hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. 

However, things are getting started in this regard. Vehicle manufacturers Honda and BMW have set up hydrogen fueling stations as part of their efforts to develop fuel cell powered cars. At Honda's research and development center in Torrance, California, a PV array electrolyses hydrogen from water. The array generates enough hydrogen to power one fuel-cell vehicle. Additional power from the power grid is used to increase the hydrogen production capacity. The new station is supporting Honda's fuel cell vehicle development program for hydrogen production, storage, and fueling. Honda and a fuel cell developer are also working together on a "home" hydrogen refueling system for fuel cell vehicles. BMW opened a hydrogen fueling station at the company's engineering and emissions control test center in Oxnard, California. BMW is taking a different approach than most car companies, burning hydrogen directly in advanced internal-combustion engines, and is testing these vehicles at the Oxnard facility. 

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is also building a hydrogen infrastructure. The CaFCP commissioned its first "satellite" hydrogen fueling system in late October 2002, in Richmond, California, about 70 miles from the CaFCP headquarters and a primary refueling facility in West Sacramento. This extends the range over which the CaFCP's prototype fuel cell vehicles can be driven. The fueling system uses electrolysis to generate hydrogen from water and includes a storage unit capable of holding 104 pounds (47 kilograms) of hydrogen. It is capable of fueling a small fleet of vehicles and requires only one or two minutes per refueling. 

In November 2002, the world's first hydrogen energy station that can provide fuel for vehicles and also produce electricity opened in Las Vegas Nevada. The station is located in the city's vehicle maintenance and operation service center. It combines an on-site hydrogen generator, compressor, liquid and gaseous hydrogen storage tanks, dispensing systems, and a stationary fuel cell. It is capable of dispensing hydrogen, hydrogen-enriched natural gas, and compressed natural gas. DOE is also working with the city to convert municipal vehicles to operate on hydrogen. 

Fuel cells are a type of technology that use hydrogen to produce useful energy. In fuel cells, electrolysis is reversed by combining hydrogen and oxygen through an electrochemical process, which produces electricity, heat, and water. The U.S. space program has used fuel cells to power spacecraft for decades. Fuel cells capable of powering automobiles and buses have been and are being developed. Several companies are developing fuel cells for stationary power generation. Most major automobile manufacturers are developing fuel cell powered automobiles. 

Hydrogen could be considered a way to store energy produced from renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal. For example, when the sun is shining, solar photovoltaic systems can provide the electricity needed to separate the hydrogen (as described above regarding Humboldt State University's Research Center). The hydrogen could then be stored and burned as fuel, or to operate a fuel cell to generate electricity at night or during cloudy periods. 

Storing Hydrogen

In order to use hydrogen on a large scale, safe, practical storage systems must be developed, especially for automobiles. Although hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, it is a difficult process because the hydrogen must be cooled to -423° Fahrenheit (-253° Celsius). Refrigerating hydrogen to this temperature uses the equivalent of 25% to 30% of its energy content, and requires special materials and handling. To cool one pound (0.45 kg) of hydrogen requires 5 kWh of electrical energy. 

Hydrogen may also be stored as a gas, which uses less energy than making liquid hydrogen. As a gas, it must be pressurized to store any appreciable amount. For large-scale use, pressurized Hydrogen gas could be stored in caverns, gas fields, and mines. The hydrogen gas could then be piped into individual homes in the same way as natural gas. Though this means of storage is feasible for heating, it is not practical for transportation because the pressurized metal tanks used for storing hydrogen gas for transportation are very expensive. 

A potentially more efficient method of storing hydrogen is in hydrides. Hydrides are chemical compounds of hydrogen and other materials. Research is currently being conducted on magnesium hydrides. Certain metal alloys such as magnesium nickel, magnesium copper, and iron titanium compounds, absorb hydrogen and release it when heated. Hydrides, however, store little energy per unit weight. Current research aims to produce a compound that will carry a significant amount of hydrogen with a high energy density, release the hydrogen as a fuel, react quickly, and be cost-effective. 

A company in Utah, Power Ball Technologies, has developed a process in which sodium metal is pelletized and encapsulated with polyethylene plastic. The pellets can then be containerized, transported, and then opened in a patented hydrogen generator to produce hydrogen gas. According to the company, each gallon of these pellets is capable of producing 1,307 gallons of hydrogen gas, which is an equivalent hydrogen storage density more than 7 times greater by volume than a compressed hydrogen tank storing hydrogen at 3,000 psi. 

The Cost of Hydrogen

Currently the most cost-effective way to produce hydrogen is steam reforming. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 1995 the cost was $7.39 per million Btu ($7.00 per gigajoule) in large plant production. This assumes a cost for natural gas of $2.43 per million Btu ($2.30 per gigajoule). This is the equivalent of $0.93 per gallon ($0.24 per liter) of gasoline. The production of hydrogen by electrolysis using hydroelectricity at off peak rates costs between $10.55 to $21.10 per million Btu ($10.00 to $20.00 per gigajoule). 

Hydrogen Research in the United States

Recognizing the potential for hydrogen fuel, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and private organizations have funded research and development (R&D) programs for several years. DOE has a major effort to develop hydrogen as a major fuel within the next few decades. 

Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications.

What are Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells?

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at producing a fuel cell which would operate directly on coal. While direct operation on coal seems less likely today, operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas is viable.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Design and Operation

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells use a molten carbonate salt mixture as its electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate. At the operating temperature of about 1200°F (650°C), the salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor. The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and chemically inert ceramic (LiA102) matrix.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell reactions that occur are:

The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte which produces water and carbon dioxide (CO2) while releasing electrons to the anode. The cathode process combines oxygen and CO2 from the oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte. The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it with the cathode feed stream.

As the operating temperature increases, the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency. On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and thus the current which can be obtained at a given voltage. The net effect for the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell is that the real operating voltage is higher than the operating voltage for the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell at the same current density.

The higher operating voltage of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell means that more power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell than from a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell of the same electrode area. As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests that a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell should be smaller and less expensive than a "comparable" Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell also produces excess heat at a temperature which is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed to a turbine to generate additional electricity. In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of 60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell systems.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F (650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of the electrolyte. To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.

As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell offers the possibility that it could operate directly on gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen within the fuel cell itself.

The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO2 from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the incoming air stream. Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent fuel stream must be burned. Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel stream.

At cell operating temperatures of 1200°F (650°C) noble metal catalysts are not required. The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder, alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep at operating temperatures. The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with lithium. Significant technology has been developed to provide electrode structures which position the electrolyte with respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation. The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell stack life. A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with corrosion of the cathode.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operating temperature is about 1200°F (650°C). At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good conductor. The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature. A change in cell temperature from 1200°F (650°C) to 1110°F (600°C) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%. The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO₂) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells offer significant cost reductions over Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs). Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning" —they can even use carbon oxides as fuel—making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.

The primary disadvantage of current Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

What are Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells?

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte—the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some phosphoric acid fuel cells have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into hydrogen than Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, which are easily "poisoned" by carbon monoxide—carbon monoxide binds to the platinum catalyst at the anode, decreasing the fuel cell's efficiency. They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). This is only slightly more efficient than combustion-based power plants, which typically operate at 33 to 35 percent efficiency. Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also expensive. Like Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, Phosphoric acid fuel cells require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. A typical phosphoric acid fuel cell costs between $4,000 and $4,500 per kilowatt to operate.

What are Alkaline Fuel Cells?

Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High-temperature Alkaline Fuel Cells operate at temperatures between 100°C and 250°C (212°F and 482°F). However, newer AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23°C to 70°C (74°F to 158°F)

Alkaline Fuel Cells' high performance is due to the rate at which chemical reactions take place in the cell. They have also demonstrated efficiencies near 60 percent in space applications.

The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide. 
In fact, even the small amount of CO₂ in the air can affect this cell's operation, making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. This purification process is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's lifetime (the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to cost.

Cost is less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have to become more cost-effective. Alkaline Fuel Cells have been shown to maintain sufficiently stable operation for more than 8,000 operating hours. To be economically viable in large-scale utility applications, these fuel cells need to reach operating times exceeding 40,000 hours, something that has not yet been achieved due to material durability issues. This is possibly the most significant obstacle in commercializing this fuel cell technology.

What are Direct Methanol Fuel Cells?

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cells since methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure since it is a liquid, like gasoline.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology is relatively new compared to that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, and Direct Methanol Fuel Cell research and development are roughly 3-4 years behind that for other fuel cell types.

What are Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells?

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells - sometime called a Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell —  deliver high power density and offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells. Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. They need only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around 80°C (176°F). Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time) and results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it requires that a noble-metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also adds cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more resistant to CO.

Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are used primarily for transportation applications and some stationary applications. Due to their fast startup time, low sensitivity to orientation, and favorable power-to-weight ratio, Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells are particularly suitable for use in passenger vehicles, such as cars and buses.

A significant barrier to using these fuel cells in vehicles is hydrogen storage. Most fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) powered by pure hydrogen must store the hydrogen onboard as a compressed gas in pressurized tanks. Due to the low energy density of hydrogen, it is difficult to store enough hydrogen onboard to allow vehicles to travel the same distance as gasoline-powered vehicles before refueling, typically 300-400 miles. Higher-density liquid fuels such as methanol, ethanol, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, and gasoline can be used for fuel, but the vehicles must have an onboard fuel processor to reform the methanol to hydrogen. This increases costs and maintenance requirements. The reformer also releases carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), though less than that emitted from current gasoline-powered engines.

What are Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells?

Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells (PCFC) are a relatively new type of fuel cell is based on a ceramic electrolyte material that exhibits high protonic conductivity at elevated temperatures. 

Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells share the thermal and kinetic advantages of high temperature operation at 700 degrees Celsius with molten carbonate and solid oxide fuel cells, while exhibiting all of the intrinsic benefits of proton conduction in Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells and Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells. 

The high operating temperature is necessary to achieve very high electrical fuel efficiency with hydrocarbon fuels. Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells can operate at high temperatures and electrochemically oxidize fossil fuels directly to the anode. This eliminates the intermediate step of producing hydrogen through the costly reforming process. Gaseous molecules of the hydrocarbon fuel are absorbed on the surface of the anode in the presence of water vapor, and hydrogen atoms are efficiently stripped off to be absorbed into the electrolyte, with carbon dioxide as the primary reaction product. Additionally, Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells have a solid electrolyte so the membrane cannot dry out as with Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, or liquid can't leak out as with Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells.


What are Solid Oxide Fuel Cells?

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration typical of other fuel cell types. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 80-85 percent.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operate at very high temperatures—around 1,000°C (1,830°F). High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as fuel. This allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to use gases made from coal.

High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation and small portable applications. The high operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operating at or below 800°C that have fewer durability problems and cost less. Lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells produce less electrical power, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature range have not been identified.

What are Regenerative Fuel Cells?

Regenerative Fuel Cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However, Regenerative Fuel Cells can also use electricity from solar power or some other source to divide the excess water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel—this process is called "electrolysis." This is a comparatively young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA and others.

About Us:

Our cogeneration and trigeneration energy systems exceed 85% net system efficiency. This translates into significant energy savings for our clients as well as reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.

We offer the following products, services and consulting services: 

• Automated Demand Response

• Biomethane

• Carbon Emissions Consulting & Solutions

• Carbon Free Energy

• Clean Energy Parks

• Clean Power Generation

• Cogeneration Plants

• Concentrating Solar Power

• Decentralized Energy

• Demand Side Management

• Distributed Generation

• Flywheel Energy Storage

• Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells

• Onsite Power Generation

• Micro-Grid Systems

• Net Zero Energy Buildings

• Peak-Shaving 

• Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

• Pollution Free Power

• Renewable Energy Centers

• Renewable Energy Parks

• Solar Cogeneration

• Solar Electric Power Systems

• Solar Trigeneration

• Solar Water Heating Systems

• Thin Film Photovoltaics

• Trigeneration

• Waste To Energy 

• Waste to Fuel 

We provide our clients with comprehensive clean power generation solutions, including "carbon free energy" and "pollution free power" systems. 

Our clients benefit from our extensive experience and knowledge of issues relating to renewable energy, environmental and sustainability issues as well as implementing real world solutions that accomplish our client's goals and objectives.

We have been providing products, consulting services, information, education and solutions for reducing: 

Carbon Emissions (www.CarbonEmissions.com)

Carbon Dioxide Emissions (www.CarbonDioxideEmissions.com)

and Greenhouse Gas Emissions (www.GreenhouseGasEmissions.com) since 2003.  

No company is better prepared to help their clients in meeting these legal and environmental challenges with proven solutions that help save money through significantly lower energy expenses while simultaneously reducing or eliminating their Greenhouse Gas Emissions, or eliminating them entirely, than us!  

We are the pioneers of "Carbon Free Energy," "Pollution Free Power" and "Clean Power Generation" strategies and solutions that can completely eliminate your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions.  Our solutions and strategies provide our customers with an integrated approach to today's climate challenges with real world solutions that solve these problems, while reducing energy expenses.

Why Choose Us?

We have proven solutions, products and services that can reduce or completely eliminate your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions. Our staff and team has the technical expertise, depth of knowledge and affiliations with major universities that are on the cutting edge of research that is developing the solutions the world needs to solve these problems. And, we are taking these university solutions to market with products and services that solve the challenges and problems relating to climate change, fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions. In fact, we don't see these as problems any longer, but opportunities to help our clients get the jump on their competition, and our solutions are providing our customers with a sustainable, and durable competitive advantage.  

Frequently Asked Questions

How does our company receive credit for our early actions at reducing our Greenhouse Gas Emissions? 

Before taking action independently, companies should first contact us so that we can help them establish a Greenhouse Gas Emissions "inventory" which we can provide as a qualified third-party. 

What is the generally accepted format for sustainability reports?

At present, most companies are using the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) protocols as this provides for the "triple bottom line" reporting which includes social, economic and environmental performance measurements. We also line to include in our triple bottom line "people, planet and profit."

What are the benefits of verifying your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions? 

1.  Satisfies regulatory compliance regulations as well as accounting regulations relating to accuracy in reporting to customers, stockholders and other company stakeholders.

2.  Prepare for present and future regulatory compliance - Cap and Trade is coming!

3.  Establishes a present-day baseline for receiving future Greenhouse Gas Emissions Credits when your company begins taking action to reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions. 

4.  Provides a blueprint and strategy for knowing how, where and when to begin reducing your company's Greenhouse Gas Emissions.

We develop renewable energy projects, and specialize in solar power and energy project development. Our company provides the total, turnkey solar energy system "in-house" as well as with affiliates and strategic partners.  This means our capabilities and core competencies include solar project:

• project identification

• project analysis

• design/engineering

• finance (through investors and joint venture partners)

• installation or construction

• ownership (with PPA)

• operations

• maintenance and service or our solar energy systems

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When It Comes to Energy Independence,
Biomethane, Not Coal, is America's "Ace in the Hole"
and One of the Greenest of All Biofuels

It's Time to Start Building Our Country's Biomethane Infrastructure &
Producing Biomethane, the Cleanest/Greenest Biofuel!

By:  Monty Goodell, MBA
Biomethane Technologies
www.Biomethane.com

Biomethane, NOT Coal, is America's True "Ace in the Hole" when it comes to our energy future, economics, the environment, sustainability and America's “Energy Independence.” And biomethane is also receiving recognition as one of the greenest of all biofuels.   

For years now, the coal industry has been touting "coal is America's 'Ace in the Hole'" when they discuss the abundance of our coal reserves here in the U.S. and the role they hope coal will play in America's energy future.

But coal is far from being the “Ace in the Hole” the coal lobby would have everyone believe.  That’s due to the proverbial “black eye” not to mention the “black lungs” and other problems that are inherent with “dirty coal.”  

While there may be a place for coal in America's energy future, coal must become "clean" for America to value it as a possible energy resource. Plans or building 18 new Coal fired power plants were cancelled in Texas last year due to the fact that coal isn't clean, and utilities aren't interested in investing the extra costs for building power plants that use "Clean Coal Technology" or "Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle" power plants that also now need to include "Carbon Capture and Sequestration" technologies to remove the carbon dioxide emissions from the stacks. Plans for many other coal fired power plants are being cancelled. And even now, owners of coal fired power plants (pulverized coal) are switching from coal, to biomass, and biomass gasification technologies, as the writing is on the wall.

Unless our society relishes the thoughts of moving back to the caves, and using candles, and foregoing our modern-day comforts, we need to move forward with renewable energy technologies such as biomethane, as the alternative is power shortages and blackouts.

We believe biomethane represents the best and greenest of all biofuels. There are no supply problems with biomethane, and we have a virtually unlimited supply for using biomethane wherever natural gas is presently used as a fuel.

It should be pointed out that biomethane is chemically no different than natural gas from the "fossil fuel" form of natural gas or CH4.

However, one important distinction between biomethane and the fossil-fuel variety of natural gas, is that the production and use of biomethane is “carbon neutral” in that the greenhouse gas emissions from biomethane use do not add any new net greenhouse gas emissions.

Biomethane starts out as “biogas” but must be cleaned and purified before it can be used as a renewable fuel.  The process of cleaning and purifying the biogas is called “biogas to biomethane.”  The impurities that are found in biogas include hydrogen sulfides, siloxanes, and carbon dioxide. When the impurities are removed from biogas, it is then referred to as biomethane and available for use as a clean fuel, just as the fossil-fuel form of natural gas is used. 

Biomethane reserves and supplies, unlike fossil-fuel natural gas, are virtually unlimited. Biomethane is produced from many sources including anaerobic digesters, wastewater treatment systems, landfills and most agricultural and forestry operations. Last year, the first Biomethane NGV refueling station was opened in Eugendorf, Austria.  Like a gas station provides gasoline for cars, the the NGV Biomethane station in Eugendorf provides biomethane for NGVs (Natural Gas Vehicles).  Presently, the station provides a blend of biomethane and natural gas.  Eventually, they hope to provide 100% biomethane for natural gas vehicles.  Companies and researchers in Germany and Austria have determined that “Cellulosic Biomethane” is the greenest of all biofuels, and the least expensive biofuel to produce.  Germany and Austria are now planting vast amounts of a form of Kentucky Bluegrass which will be harvested for use in producing “Cellulosic Biomethane,” through anaerobic digesters and fermentation.

Researchers from around the world, starting in Austria, are finding that grasses such as Kentucky Bluegrass are easily converted into biomethane as well as organic fertilizer. Cellulosic Biomethane production doesn’t require the fermentation of sugars or starches - as the first generation of liquid biofuels – requiring grains and oilseeds from food crops. As the Austrian Cellulosic Biomethane project shows, biomethane can be produced from a cellulosic biomass feedstock like grass. Yield estimates from the Austrian Cellulosic Biomethane research indicate that one natural gas vehicle can travel 10,000 to 15,000 miles on just one acre of Kentucky Bluegrass that was processed into biomethane.

At a Jan. 8, 2009 public workshop held by the California Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition, they documented the superior benefits and potential of biomethane as a clean, renewable energy resource.  The California Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition stated that Biomethane should be classified as a "Super Ultra Low Carbon fuel."  Super Ultra Low Carbon fuel is defined as providing at least an 82 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions - based on the California Air Resource Board’s analysis of biomethane from landfill gas.

Biomethane has a carbon dioxide emissions intensity of only 11 as compared with:

                                                                        67.9 for natural gas
                                                                        95.8 for diesel
                                                                        96.7 for gasoline

Biomethane can displace and substitute the equivalent of 29% percent of all petroleum diesel transportation fuel used - almost immediately.

According to the California Energy Commission and the Biomass Collaborative, landfills, wastewater treatment, and dairy waste sources - which are "developable today" and can start producing Biomethane almost immediately, with low investment/high returns, could yield 121 billion cubic feet of Biomethane. At $8.00/mmbtu, that's a $1 billion market opportunity in California alone.  The 121 billion cubic feet of Biomethane equals about 860 million gallons of petroleum diesel. California alone uses about 3 billion gallons of diesel annually for transportation. Emerging biomass gasification and Biomethanation technologies could more than double Biomethane supplies.

Biomethane - like natural gas from "fossil fuels" - can be compressed or liquefied. And using "Compressed Biomethane" is a significantly better choice as a transportation fuel than traditional "natural gas."

Biomethane is the "natural, natural gas" and is far better for the environment and the economy than natural gas. Biomethane, when "vented" to the environment, is 21 times more hazardous to the climate than carbon dioxide emissions which are the only emissions (and water vaport) from compressed natural gas vehicles' engines when used as a fuel.

Again, we are reminded that Biomethane is the same chemical compound as natural gas: CH4, and completely replaces and substitutes for natural gas. Engines, turbines, boilers and every other natural gas appliance can use Biomethane without any adjustments or modifications - just like natural gas.

Biomethane supplies, as opposed to natural gas supplies from the fossil fuel industry, are available in an unlimited supply.

Moving forward with a “Biomethane Infrastructure” is the direction our country needs to be moving as one of our fuel choices as we become energy-independent.  Every MCF of Biomethane that we use displaces about 8 gallons of gasoline and creates jobs that will never be outsourced or downsized.

(Some of the above information from the California Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition.)

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Please Support H.R. 1158, The Biogas Production Incentive Act of 2009 
to Help Create our Nation's Biomethane Infrastructure 
& Biomethane Reserves

SUMMARY:  The Biogas Production Incentive Act of 2009 if enacted, will amend the Internal Revenue Code to allow a business-related tax credit for the production, sale, or use of biogas. Defines biogas as a gas that is derived by processing qualified energy feedstock (i.e., manure of agricultural livestock and other organic agricultural or food industry byproduct waste material) in an anaerobic digester and that contains at least 52% methane and carbon dioxide and trace gases. Provides an increased credit for biogas produced from qualified cellulosic energy feedstock.


Dear Senator or Representative ________

I am writing to you in support of HR 1158, the Biogas Production Incentive Act of 2009 and recommend that Congress develops and passes this much needed legislation that provides a $4.27 per MMBTU tax credit for the production of Biogas – also known as "Renewable Natural Gas," "Renewable Biogas" or "Biomethane."

            H.R. 1158, the Biogas Production Incentive Act would establish this tax credit that will help jumpstart this vital industry.  Renewable biogas and biomethane have been heralded by many as being the greenest of all biofuels.  Biomethane has a carbon dioxide emissions intensity of only 11 as compared with 67.9 for natural gas, 95.8 for diesel and 96.7 for gasoline.  Biomethane can displace and substitute the equivalent of 29% percent of all petroleum diesel transportation fuel used - almost immediately.  The California Natural Gas Vehicle Coalition stated that Biomethane should be classified as a "Super Ultra Low Carbon fuel."  Super Ultra Low Carbon fuel is defined as providing at least an 82 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions - based on the California Air Resource Board’s analysis of biomethane from landfill gas.

The U.S. Congress has wisely supported the expanded use of domestic renewable resources through a variety of tax incentives and other programs.  Up to this point, Congress has focused primarily on measures that support the production of renewable liquid transportation fuels or electricity.  In the U.S., however, natural gas represents 23 percent of the energy consumed.

            Natural gas is the fuel of choice to provide residential and commercial heat for space and hot water in most applications and is used to produce steam in a variety of commercial and industrial applications. Natural gas is also the fuel that provides the energy to manufacture many industrial products including aluminum, steel, glass, chemicals, fertilizer, and ethanol.  

            Incentivizing the production of renewable natural gas or "Biomethane" from sources that include animal manure, landfills, renewable biomass and agricultural wastes will support expanding the role of renewables into this existing energy sector, where little opportunity exists today.   It will also create another business investment prospect for renewable project developers and the potential to expand rural economies while supporting existing industrial jobs and dramatically reducing carbon emissions.     

Please consider the following:

•           Renewable Biomethane is a versatile form of bio-energy. It can be used directly at the site of production, or placed in the pipeline to support a variety of residential commercial or industrial applications.

•           Renewable Biomethane produced from renewable sources including animal manure, landfills, renewable biomass and agricultural wastes can be produced at high efficiencies ranging from 60–70 percent.  Additionally, all of the technology components to produce renewable gas from this variety of sources exist today.

•           Renewable Biomethane can be delivered to customers via the existing U.S. pipeline infrastructure.

•           Renewable Biomethane can provide a renewable option for many heavy industries, which could save existing industrial jobs in a carbon constrained economy - while creating new rural green jobs to produce Renewable Biomethane.

•           Renewable Biomethane production in digesters provides the agricultural sector additional environmental benefits by improving waste management and nutrient control. 

We believe this is a fiscally responsible proposal that will provide the following benefits:              

•           Jump-start new biomethane gas production

•           Begin the creation of the biomethane infrastructure and biomethane industry

•           Increase biomethane “reserves”

•           Creation of green jobs

•           Expand the rural economy and increase revenues for farming and agricultural operations

•           Increase energy independence

•           Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Thank you for your support and consideration of this legislation.

Sincerely,

_______________________
Signature and address

Please write to your Representative and Senators, and ask them to support H.R. 1158 and the $4.27 per MMBTU tax credit for the production of Biomethane/Renewable Natural Gas, using the above letter as a suggested letter you are welcome to use as your own.

Thank you!  

For more information on Biomethane, see www.Biomethane.com

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We help clients with tax credits when they use renewable energy technologies
such as the Synthesis Gas produced from Biomass Gasification plants.
__________________________________________________________________

Section 45 Tax Credits
Renewable Energy Tax Credits

Our renewable energy project development expertise has made us a leading authority of helping our clients with Section 45 Tax Credits.  Our company and our attorneys are skilled in the areas of renewable energy project finance and tax issues relating to renewable energy projects. We are able to assist our clients in connection with Section 45 tax credit project finance.

Our experience in Section 45 tax credits has helped us structure optimal renewable energy project solutions that match our clients unique economic and tax goals and requirements, which include regulatory constraints and regulatory compliance for most any state. 

Section 45 tax credits generate $.021 cents per kwh of electricity produced by the taxpayer and sold to an unrelated person or company. Section 45 tax credits are available for renewable electricity produced from certain renewable energy projects including, closed-loop biomass, open-loop biomass, geothermal power plants, solar energy, small irrigation power, municipal solid waste, and qualified hydro power production, refined coal and wind power generation.

See one of our following sites at: 

www.Section45TaxCredits.com   or  www.RenewableEnergyTaxCredits.com  

for more information or call:  (832) 758 - 0027 for more information

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Biomethane
www.Biomethane.com
The "Renewable Natural Gas"

The Unlimited Potential for Biomethane and Renewable Natural Gas 

• Sweden is now leading Europe and the rest of the world in the pursuit of cellulosic biomethane.

• According to recent studies by researchers, professors and universities in Sweden, cellulosic biomethane is significantly more economic and less energy intensive to produce today than any biofuel (i.e. E100 Ethanol, B100 Biodiesel, Dimethyl Ether, etc.).
  

• If the U.S. were to similarly emphasize the production of cellulosic biomethane as Sweden is now doing, the U.S. could significantly increase the supply of Biomethane - a renewable, clean fuel with an unlimited supply. 

• Biomethane can be produced from landfill gas, sewage and animal and crop waste. Besides supplementing our existing natural gas supplies, Biomethane would provide huge greenhouse gas emissions reductions.
    

• Based on an analysis conducted for the Department of Energy in the 1990's, it appears that at least 1¼ quadrillion BTUs of methane could reasonably be produced using exiting landfill gas to energy sites, wastewater treatment systems and animal waste sources (Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations) alone. 

• If the Biomethane produces in the U.S. were used for natural gas vehicles, it would displace approximately 10 billion gallons of gasoline, per year!  This is 10 times the amount (1 billion gallons of gasoline) per year projected for natural gas (the fossil fuel) in the Annual DOE outlook.

Regarding Greenhouse Gas Emissions and 
Biomethane/Renewable Natural Gas vs. Gasoline

• Gasoline produces about 110% more Greenhouse Gas Emissions than Biomethane which would have otherwise been flared or vented to the atmosphere.

• In the U.S., it is now feasible to capture and use about 1.25 quadrillion Btu's of Biomethane from landfills, animal waste and POTWs (wastewater treatment systems) alone.  This is equivalent to about 6% of all of the natural gas presently used in the U.S.

• If this Biomethane were used as a transportation fuel in natural gas vehicles, the Biomethane would displace 10 billion gallons of gasoline per year!
  

Other Benefits and Incentives of Biomethane: 
The Federal Biogas/Biomethane Tax Credit:

Equal to 2.0 cents per KWH (approximately $5.66 per MMBtu) for electricity produced on-site from Biomethane.

All other uses of biogas and Biomethane in vehicles and producing electricity off-site) do not presently qualify for the Federal Biogas/Biomethane Tax Credit.

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What is "Pipeline Quality" or "Pipeline Quality Gas"?

The "raw" biogas that is produced from Anaerobic Digesters and Landfill Gas To Energy projects cannot be sold to natural gas pipelines or used in internal combustion engines due to the high number of contaminants, impurities and other chemicals in the biogas.

Raw biogas, in order to become "Biomethane" or Pipeline Quality Gas, must for from "Biogas to Biomethane" wherein the impurities and contaminants of the biogas are removed.  This process of biogas purification to biomethane is also called "Gas Sweetening."  The impurities and contaminants of biogas that need to be removed to then have Biomethane or Pipeline Quality Gas include;  carbon dioxide (CO2), water, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and Siloxane.  Some of the Biogas to Biomethane technologies include; iron sponge, water scrubbing, membrane separation, pressure swing adsorption (PSA), and mixing with higher quality gases.

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Sewage Sludge
www.SewageSludge.com

We Turn Your City or County's Sewage Sludge 
Problems  into Profits and Green Energy

Sewage Sludge problems are a thing of the past!  and other organic waste streams with one or more of the following: Anaerobic Digester, Anaerobic Lagoon, Biogas Recovery, BioMethane, Biomass Gasification, Biosolids to Energy, Landfill Gas To Energy and Sewage Sludge "problems into profits"  project development services.  We provide the following power and energy project development services:

• Project Engineering Feasibility & Economic Analysis Studies  

• Engineering, Procurement and Construction

• Environmental Engineering & Permitting 

• Project Funding & Financing Options; including Equity Investment, Debt Financing, Lease and Municipal Lease

• Shared/Guaranteed Savings Program with No Capital Investment from Qualified Clients 

• Project Commissioning 

• 3rd Party Ownership and Project Development

• Long-term Service Agreements

• Operations & Maintenance 

• Green Tag (Renewable Energy Credit, Carbon Dioxide Credits, Emission Reduction Credits) Brokerage Services; Application and Permitting
  

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Biomethane: the Perfect Renewable Fuel!
Biomethane Far Better than B100 Biodiesel or E100 Ethanol

As Biomethane is a near perfect fuel, and since Biomethane represents the best of all biofuels in terms of Recycling Carbon, and has the highest Net Energy Balance, and as Biomethane technologies such as Anaerobic Digesters and Biomass Gasification development increases and becomes even more commonplace, one of the fundamental questions is: what is the size of the potential biomass resource supply in the U.S.?

In April 2005, the DOE and the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) co-published a report assessing the potential of the land resources in the U.S. for producing sustainable biomass: Biomass as Feedstock for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry: The Technical Feasibility of a Billion-Ton Annual Supply. Looking at forestland and agricultural land, the two largest potential biomass sources, this study estimates that the U.S. can sustainably produce up to 1.3 billion tons of biomass feedstock by mid-century. This would be enough feedstock to produce 60 billion gallons of B100 Biodiesel and E100 Ethanol with today's technologies.

This study doesn't address the opportunities for Biomethane production from biomass feedstock or Biomass Gasification technologies. Some recent estimates indicate that Biomethane could replace up to 50% of present natural gas consumption in the U.S. and in some countries, such as Iceland, Biomethane already provides 100% of the natural gas requirements.

There are many assumptions in the Billion Ton Study report that impact these estimates, but we believe the estimates reasonably reflect the potential availability and impact of biomass resources.

Of the total estimated resource, the study suggests that forestlands in the contiguous United States can produce approximately 368 million dry tons annually. This projection includes 52 million dry tons of fuelwood harvested from forests and woodlands, 145 million dry tons of residues from wood processing mills and pulp and paper mills, 47 million dry tons of urban wood residues including construction and demolition debris, 64 million dry tons of residues from logging and site clearing operations, and 60 million dry tons of biomass from fuel treatment operations.

Biomass to Biofuels

By "converting" biomass wastes – such as municipal solid waste, sewage sludge, crop residues, energy crops, and manure – into biofuels, this will resolve the energy, environmental and political problems in an economical and environmentally sound manner - that will produce over one million new jobs.

According to Jeff Seisler, Director of the European Natural Gas Vehicle Association, "Biomethane has an outstanding potential as a multifaceted solution to multifaceted social problems: urban and agricultural waste management, water purification, and clean air. Urban and agricultural waste can be processed into usable methane, as can the sewage during the water purification process. Cleaning and compressing the gas for use in vehicles then provides cleaner air than petroleum-consuming vehicles."

Continuing, Mr. Seisler states about Biomethane; "this environmental 'closed loop waste-to-energy-to-fuel used in vehicles that again truck the next load of waste to the energy processing plants-substitutes fossil fuels with a renewable resource and reduces greenhouse gases 100% as compared to over gasoline vehicles (on a well-to-wheel basis).

According to Peter Boisen Chairman, of ENGVA, "various well respected European research institutes now estimate more than three times better fuel output per hectare of land used than if going for ethanol or biodiesel. Sweden currently has a 51% Biomethane share, and Switzerland 37%. France, Norway, Germany and Austria use smaller amounts for vehicles. Iceland, completely without natural gas, uses 100% biomethane in its NGVs," Boisen says.  Continuing, Boisen adds, "China, India, Korea, the Ukraine, Spain and Italy are other examples of countries now starting up projects where Biomethane will be used as a vehicle fuel." 

"With the energy efficiency of the gas production process at 50% to 70% it's hard to think of a more socially acceptable and economic energy value for the transportation sector," Boisen says.

"Governments need to get out of their liquid fuel paradigm to refocus and balance their policies and communications to support the development of a Biomethane infrastructure. In Europe Biomethane has the potential to replace 20% of the petroleum consumed in the transport sector by 2030."

Thursday, 29 June 2006
Sacramento, California USA and Sweden 

In a ceremony held at the Ministry of the Environment in Stockholm, representatives of the Kingdom of Sweden and the State of California signed an agreement pledging the two governments and their related industries to work together to develop bioenergy, with a particular emphasis on Biomethane. 

“Through a strong working relationship between its industry and government, Sweden is showing how bioenergy can be developed in a cost-effective manner that benefits its economy and environment. We are extremely pleased to have signed this Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) that will provide a basis for intensified collaboration between Swedish and California officials to develop a thriving bioenergy industry in California,” said Joe Desmond, Undersecretary for the California Resources Agency.

In particular, Sweden has been a global leader in terms of converting biowaste, largely agricultural material and residues, into usable Biomethane. This gas is then used to either generate electricity, residential heating, or as a transportation fuel.

More than 8,000 vehicles in Sweden are powered by a combination of natural gas and Biomethane. The vehicles include transit buses, refuse trucks, and more than 10 different models of passenger cars. There are more than 25 Biomethane production facilities in Sweden and 65 filling stations. The Swedish Biomethane industry has been growing at an annual rate of about 20 percent over the last five years.

According to the Swedish Gas Association, more than 50 percent of the methane used to power Sweden’s natural gas vehicles now comes from biological sources, up from 45% last year. Natural gas vehicle sales in Sweden are increasing at the rate of 25% per annum. 

Sweden was motivated to develop its Biomethane industry because it has no natural gas reserves, to more efficiently manage its waste, and to meet its obligations under the Kyoto Accord. Since Biomethane is developed from methane sources that would normally release into the atmosphere, it’s considered one of the most climate friendly fuels. Methane (and Biomethane) is 21 times more reactive as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide (CO2). Sweden is currently meetings its objectives and schedule as outlined in the Kyoto accord.

Biomethane is developed by heating up and breaking down biomaterials in an (Anaerobic Digesters) digester. Among other raw materials, Swedish operators feed their Anaerobic Digesters with slaughterhouse waste, swine manure, and even grassy crops. After the materials breakdown over a 20 day period, technology is then used to remove the impurities and produce Biomethane. Once cleaned-up, Biomethane is 98 percent methane and easily meets the Swedish and California pipeline standards.

The Memorandum of Understanding can be accessed on the California Resources Agency Web site: http://resources.ca.gov/press_documents/CaliforniaSwedenBiofuelsMOU.pdf

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Anaerobic Digesters recover valuable and toxic Biomethane from organic materials and prevents the Biomethane - which has a Global Warming Potential that is 21 times more harmful to our climate than Carbon Dioxide Emissions - from entering the atmosphere.  

Biomethane, which we also refer to as "Renewable Natural Gas" is used as a renewable fuel for our cogeneration and trigeneration power plants. Alternatively, we may sell the Biomethane to a customer and transport it to them from our Anaerobic Digesters via natural gas pipelines.

We believe Anaerobic Digesters and Biomethane represent exciting opportunities for generating renewable natural gas and profits - for multiple reasons:

1.  Anaerobic Digesters take an existing liability and waste (Biomethane) and convert it into an asset and " profit generator."

2.  Anaerobic Digesters mitigate and reverse climate change and global warming by preventing Biomethane to escape into the atmosphere, which is one of the major causes of climate change and global warming.  

Of all Greenhouse Gas Emissions, Biomethane is 21 times more harmful to the environment than Carbon Dioxide Emissions.

3.  Anaerobic Digesters are vital for renewable energy production and helping our country's drive for energy independence. 

4.  EVERY wastewater treatment plant as well as ALL Concentrated Animal Feeding Operations (CAFO's) - IN EVERY COUNTRY - will soon be installing Anaerobic Digesters to prevent Biomethane from entering the atmosphere and help reverse climate change as well as for use as a renewable fuel. Or, they will be replacing their existing inefficient and inferior mechanical wastewater treatment plants, with our "Natural Wastewater Treatment" plants! 

5.  The country of Sweden is the global leader in Biomethane production.  Sweden has identified the Biomethane opportunities and is converting biowaste derived from agricultural material and residues into usable Biomethane. The Biomethane is used to generate clean, renewable electricity, residential heating, and also as a transportation fuel. Biomass sources make up 45% of Sweden’s Biomethane.  Sweden's Biomethane industry has been growing at an annual rate of around 20% over the last five years.  Biomethane powers more than 8,000 transit buses, garbage trucks, and 10 different models of passenger cars in Sweden. Sweden now has more than 25 Biomethane production facilities and 65 filling stations. The country believes that since Biomethane is developed from natural, organic sources that would have been released into the atmosphere, that Biomethane is considered one of the most climate-friendly fuels. Biomethane is 98% methane and easily meets the Swedish and California pipeline standards.

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Greenhouse Gas Emissions Linked to 
the Loss of Polar Bears

Monty Goodell, MBA
Founder and Chairman
Renewable Energy Institute

The Renewable Energy Institute (REI) does not take a stand in the debate on global warming, and if there is global warming, is it "anthropogenic" or is it caused by the sun, or the sun's normal cycles.  Or, if there is " climate change," is it "global cooling" caused by the water vapor in the atmosphere? The stand we take is that we need to invest in renewable energy technologies, producing clean, renewable energy that doesn't pollute the planet, and end America's addiction to crude oil from foreign countries where we now spend OVER $1 Billion/day, to buy the oil we need, and some of those suppliers (muslims in foreign countries) take our dollars and make bombs and bullets and send our boys back in body bags. We need to stop this, and put American's back to work, generating "green power and energy" right here at home.

At the Renewable Energy Institute, we are waiting for the "true" scientists who doing the real research, to provide us with the science and answers critically needed to formulate correct policy - and not the phony " scientists" who are following politically-motivated and profit-driven agendas of the United Nations and government leaders. These phony scientists are not interested in conducting real scientific research.  Their very livelihoods are dependent on the government grants to fund their phony research that have pre-determined conclusions before and "research" is conducted.  

Political-interference by governments, governmental agencies, and bureaucrats that hand out billions of tax-payers dollars to phony scientists to conduct "junk science" and research,  expect the conclusions that supports anthropogenic global warming, or climate change. 

When scientists conclude in their research that they find no evidence of anthropogenic climate change or global warming, they are summarily dismissed, and black-balled from their communities and colleagues, and never again receive funding or grants.  Grants and funding by government bureaucrats with politically-driven agendas to "scientists" expecting their pre-determined results and conclusions supporting anthropogenic global warming must stop.

According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), in 2007

• the solar industry received $198 million in subsidies.

• the oil and natural gas industry collected $2.1 Billion in tax-payer subsidies.

• the coal industry coal received $3.2 Billion in tax-payer subsidies.

And since 1960:

• the nuclear industry has received nearly $70 billion in tax-payer incentives and tax-payer subsidies. 

Taxpayers have bankrolled the oil and gas industry, and the coal industry for 100 years now, and the nuclear industry for 50 years, to keep these dirty fuels and energy "cheap." Take away the tax-payer incentives and tax dollars, and we believe the real cost of gasoline, would be similar to the gasoline cost in Europe - $7.00 - $8.00/gallon!

In the meantime, our U.S. Military is spending billions of tax-payer dollars each year protecting the Straits of Hormuz where much of the world's crude oil is produced and shipped through the straits' international shipping lanes.  Each day, hundreds of "very large crude carriers" pass through the Straits of Hormuz carrying oil from OPEC and the Middle-East to the U.S. and many other countries. 

Isn't it time we take some of the tax-payer dollars supporting the nuclear, coal and oil and gas industries, and start incentivizing clean, renewable energy technologies that don't pollute or harm the environment in any way?  Isn't it time that America ends its reliance on non-sustainable energy sources and stop over $1 billion every day, to oil suppliers from foreign countries, and start putting this money in "solar on every rooftop?!?

Mercury Emissions from Coal Fired Power Plants Far More Harmful to the Planet and People than Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Regarding the harm being caused to our planet from energy use, far more harm is being done to the planet, as well as to people and plants and animals, particularly fish, from the mercury emissions from coal fired power plants than from the coal fired power plants' greenhouse gas emissions.  We surmise that if any polar bears have died as a result of an environmental problem, it was more likely from the high levels of mercury in their food chain, than from greenhouse gas emissions. 

The Renewable Energy Institute is supporting and advancing renewable energy technologies, as well as reducing and eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and the fossil-fuel problems related to America's oil addiction and ending our dependence on foreign oil.  The renewable energy technologies we support are already deemed to be economic, viable and practical. Solutions such as Solar Trigeneration energy systems (see www.SolarTrigeneration.com for more information) for any kind of facility or building - office buildings, shopping centers, data centers, university campuses, etc. 

Since 2003, a Solar Trigeneration energy system has been providing 100% of the power and energy for a 5,300 sq. ft. office building near downtown Los Angeles, and doing so without any connection to the electric grid, whether its 12 noon or 12 midnite!  

The Renewable Energy Institute is also involved in research and advocacy of "Net Zero Energy" (see: www.NetZeroEnergy.com for more information) and "Net Zero Energy Buildings" (see:  www.NetZeroEnergyBuildings.com for more information).  Net Zero Energy Buildings generate as much (or more) energy than they use, and export their excess power to the grid, which we believe needs to be updated into a "Transmission Superhighway."

Climate Change, Global Warming or Global Cooling?

The past 10 years indicates the opposite of "global warming" has occurred - that the "Earths Fever" has and that global cooling has taken place. 

Weather, on a daily basis, or even an annual basis, is not climate, and climate is not weather. 

"Climate change" is always taking place, from one day to the next, and one week to the next, as well as one year to the next. The planet's climate is an ever-evolving, changing and dynamic process.  

Again, researchers and scientists need to refrain from being political, and stay out of politics, and politicians need to stay out of the way of the scientists and researchers, and let them do their work.  Politicians, government leaders and bureaucrats scientists need true and accurate data and climate research from scientists that do not have a political agenda.

In the meantime, as there may still be 30 years of research before there are conclusive answers concerning anthropogenic climate change, can we "risk" 30 years of our children and grand children's future, should there is a link between climate change and greenhouse gas emissions?  Should we not err on the side of caution?

Hubbert's Peak Oil Predictions Now Proving True?

Marion King Hubbert was a geologist and scientist who worked at Shell Oil company's research lab in Houston, Texas.  Hubbert made several important contributions to geology, geophysics and petroleum geology.  Hubbert is most recognized for the "Hubbert Curve" and " Hubbert Peak Theory" which is now referred to as " Peak Oil. 

Hubbert's life work determined that the world has a finite amount of petroleum that can be produced.  (Similarly, there is a finite amount of coal.) Many scientists and engineers believe we have reached Hubbert's "peak oil" limit.  Hubbert's espouses that when 50% of domestic crude oil production has been reached, that there will be such significant upward demand on prices of the limited supplies of oil production, that the U.S. economy will experience severe economic, social, and political turmoil.

Hubbert's Peak Oil predictions have proven to be true and this is validated as the U.S. in the early 1970's produced about 60% of its' oil demand and imported 40%.  That equation has flipped since then, because our domestic oil production has been on the decline since 1970, so now, due to our declining domestic oil production, we have to import 60% of our oil supplies, to meet our country's oil/energy demands.

The Next Oil Shock Could be the "mother" of All Oil Shocks

How severe our economic calamity and next "oil shock" will depend upon a number of factors, including when this occurs, as well as the following:

1.  the dependence of the individual country upon its own crude oil production to meet its energy needs and to subsidize consumer imports; 

2.  the rate of relative decline in crude oil production; 

3.  the degree of difficulty encountered in replacing missing energy inputs; 

4.  the degree to which our country had prepared in advance for this inevitable geological and economic calamity.

Examples of past "oil shocks" and the economic and political calamities that followed:

United States: Our peak crude oil production of domestic oil occurred in 1970; the first "oil shock" and oil crisis followed in 1973 with the Arab/OPEC Oil Embargo.

Iran: Their peak crude oil production occurred in 1974; They had their islamic revolution 1979 that overturned government and replaced it with radical islam.

Soviet Union: Their peak crude oil production was in 1989; what happened next? 
Their country disintegrated and the collapse of the Soviet Union followed in 1991. 

Indonesia: Their peak crude oil production was in 1991; their financial and government crisis followed in 1997.

Iraq: Iraq's crude oil production was in 1989; they then invaded Kuwait (for their oil) in 1991.

Using Mr. Hubbert's predictions, that beginning around 2000  we would see peak (global) oil production, then, if the country's not weaning themselves off of their oil addiction, and had not begun making the switch to renewable energy, that the negative economic and political calamities would soon follow, including ever-increasing prices of energy that is from fossil fuels. 

Now is the time to begin weaning ourselves off of fossil fuels and making the transition to and increasing the use of renewable energy. If you don't believe in climate change, or global warming, GREAT! Join us in the switch to renewable energy and a fossil-free economy!

America's "Clear and Present Danger"

America Has INCREASED its' Dependence on Foreign 
Sources of Energy by 50% Since 1973.

America is even more "addicted" to foreign oil today, than we were in 1973 - 1974 when OPEC, Saudi Arabia and other suppliers from the Middle-East  stopped selling us their fossil fuels, and created a significant blow to our economy.

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